Computer aided image denoising method for clinical analysis of PET images

ABSTRACT

Aspects of the disclosure provide a method for denoising an image. The method can include receiving an acquired image from an image acquisition system, and processing the acquired image with a nonlinear diffusion coefficient based filter having a diffusion coefficient that is calculated using gradient vector orientation information in the acquired image.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a Continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.17/314,771, now allowed, having a filing date of May 7, 2021 which is aContinuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/964,428, now U.S. Pat. No.11,049,221, having a filing date of Apr. 27, 2018.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present disclosure relates to the field of image processing, andmore particularly to image processing system and method for noisereduction and edge detection in an image (e.g. a medical image, or anastronomical image).

BACKGROUND

The background description provided herein is for the purpose ofgenerally presenting the context of the disclosure. Work of thepresently named inventors, to the extent the work is described in thisbackground section, as well as aspects of the description that may nototherwise qualify as prior art at the time of filing, are neitherexpressly nor impliedly admitted as prior art against the presentdisclosure.

In contrast to X-ray, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance which producean anatomical map of the body, nuclear medicine imaging, such aspositron emission tomography (PET), images a special distribution ofradiopharmaceuticals introduced into a human body. Theradiopharmaceuticals, also termed radiotracers, are compounds consistingof a chemical substrate linked to a radioactive element. Abnormalradiotracer uptake in a tissue, or an increase or decrease in a rate atwhich the radiotracer accumulates in a particular tissue is a strongindicator of disease. PET is based on positron-emittingradiopharmaceuticals. During a positron annihilation process, anelectron and a positron collide, emitting two gamma ray photons. Bydetecting emissions of gamma ray photons with a PET scanner, a PET imagecan be acquired.

Radiotracer uptake measured by PET scanner is useful for detection,diagnosis and staging of diseases. Radiotracer uptake changes measuredby PET scanner can be used to monitor response to a therapy during atreatment process. Standardized uptake value (SUV)—which is a normalizedrelative measure of radioactive concentration to remove the variation ofinjected radio activity and patient size, is widely used as asemi-quantitative parameter for clinical evaluations. SUVs derived fromPET images are not robust and reproducible due to poor signal-to-noiseratio (SNR) and low spatial resolution of PET images. The uncertaintiesin longitudinal SUV measurements are even greater when SNR, size andcontrast of lesion are subject to change.

To achieve satisfactory signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio of PET images,filtering can be performed during an image reconstruction process byincorporating a prior term in the statistical reconstruction algorithm.An example is provided in Qi, J. and R. M. Leahy, Iterativereconstruction techniques in emission computed tomography, Phys MedBiol, 2006. 51(15): p. R541-78, which is incorporated herein byreference in its entirety. Alternatively, filtering can be performedafter completion of reconstruction, examples of which can be found inNuyts, J. and J. A. Fessler, A penalized-likelihood image reconstructionmethod for emission tomography, compared to postsmoothedmaximum-likelihood with matched spatial resolution, IEEE Trans MedImaging, 2003. 22(9): p. 1042-52, and Nuyts, J., et al., Comparisonbetween MAP and postprocessed ML for image reconstruction in emissiontomography when anatomical knowledge is available, IEEE Trans MedImaging, 2005. 24(5): p. 667-75, both of which are incorporated hereinby reference in their entirety.

Conventionally, Gaussian filter (GF) with varying levels of full widthhalf maximum (FWHM) accounting for the intrinsic resolutions ofdifferent scanners can be employed after the reconstruction known aspost reconstruction filtering. Though GF provides linear and predictableSNR thereby facilitating identification and delineation of lesions, itreduces the spatial resolution of images, which is harmful to accuratequantification of tracer uptake.

Wavelet based filtering for PET is an alternative to GF as it is capableof smoothing based on the magnitude of noise. However, the method isstill limited by capacity of processing edge discontinuities. Acombination of wavelet and curvelet based denoising method is proposedto apply on PET images which complement the limitations of each other.Though the method is capable of preserving edges, it requires tocompromise on quantitative accuracy.

Edge preserving bilateral filter (BF) is a type of locally adaptedfilter that incorporates both spatial and intensity information toimprove spatial resolution. However, the BF fails to providesatisfactory results for low counts cases where the presence of highnoise makes the intensity unreliable.

Nonlinear diffusion filter (NDF) is an alternative to BF filter whichuses gradient magnitude to calculate diffusion coefficients. Due to highnoise and limited resolution, determination of gradient of PET images isnot straightforward especially for low contrast and low count cases. NDFis also known to increase noise instead of eliminating it in case imageis corrupted by speckle noise.

For both clinical and quantitative perspective, an optimal imagefiltering method should improve SNR while preserving original structure,geometric and quantitative information. In addition, since in responseassessment, noise, contrasts and size can change, the method should berobust enough to be implemented for different noise levels and contrastswithout the need of adjusting the parameters for each scenario.

One objective of the present disclosure is to provide a nonlineardiffusion coefficient based filter image filter method that may be usedwith images having varying noise and contrast levels.

SUMMARY

Aspects of the disclosure provide a method for denoising an image. Themethod can include receiving an acquired image from an image acquisitionsystem, and processing the acquired image with a nonlinear diffusioncoefficient based filter having a diffusion coefficient that iscalculated using gradient vector orientation information in the acquiredimage.

In one embodiment, the method can further include processing theacquired image with the nonlinear diffusion coefficient based filterhaving the diffusion coefficient that is calculated using both gradientvector magnitude information and gradient vector orientation informationin the acquired image.

In one example, the nonlinear diffusion coefficient based filter isdefined by following partial-differential-equation,

${\frac{\partial{I\left( {x,y,t} \right)}}{\partial t} = {\nabla \cdot \left\lbrack {{c\left( {x,y,t} \right)}{\nabla{I\left( {x,y,t} \right)}}} \right\rbrack}},$I(t = 0) = I₀,where I(x,y,t) represents an image, (x, y) represents a position ofpixel in the image, t is a parameter indicating a scale level in a scalespace of the image I(x,y,t), I₀ represents an initial image with t=0, ∇.and ∇ are divergence and gradient operators, respectively, and c(x,y,t)is the diffusion coefficient at a pixel located at position (x, y).

In one example, the diffusion coefficient is defined as,

${{c\left( {x,y,t} \right)} = {\exp\left\lbrack {- \left( \frac{{{\nabla{I_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)}}} \times {\alpha_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)}}{k} \right)^{2}} \right\rbrack}},$where I_(σ)(x,y,t) represents a smoothed image that is the initial imageI₀ smoothed with a Gaussian kernel having a width of σ, k is a noisethreshold, α_(σ)(x,y,t) is a term carrying gradient vector orientationinformation.

In one example, the term carrying gradient vector orientationinformation is defined as,

${{\alpha_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)} = {{❘{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{p}{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{q}{\cos\left( \theta_{({i,j,t})} \right)}}}❘} = {❘{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{p}{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{q}\frac{{\nabla{I_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)}} \times {\nabla{I_{\sigma}\left( {i,j,t} \right)}}}{{{\nabla{I_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)}}} \times {{\nabla{I_{\sigma}\left( {i,j,t} \right)}}}}}}❘}}},$wherein p×q represents a size of a window in terms of pixels thatsurrounds a position (x, y) in the smoothed image I_(σ)(x,y,t),θ_((i,j)) is an angle between a gradient vector ∇I_(σ)(i,j,t) and agradient vector ∇I_(σ)(x,y,t).

In various embodiments, the acquired image can be one of an X-ray image,a computed tomography (CT) image, an magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)image, an ultrasound image, a nuclear medicine image, a positronemission tomography (PET) image, and a single-photon emission computedtomography (SPECT)) image, an astronomical image. In various examples,the acquired image can be a two-dimensional (2D) or three-dimensional(3D) medical image.

Aspects of the disclosure provide an apparatus for denoising an image.The apparatus can include a memory storage including instructions, andone or more processors in communication with the memory, wherein the oneor more processors execute the instructions to receive an acquired imagefrom an image acquisition system, and process the acquired image with anonlinear diffusion coefficient based filter having a diffusioncoefficient that is calculated using gradient vector orientationinformation in the acquired image.

Aspects of the disclosure provide a non-transitory computer-readablemedium having computer readable instructions stored thereon which, whenexecuted by a processor, cause the processor to perform the method fordenoising an image.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Various embodiments of this disclosure that are proposed as exampleswill be described in detail with reference to the following figures,wherein like numerals reference like elements, and wherein:

FIG. 1 shows an example medical imaging system according to someembodiments of the disclosure;

FIG. 2 shows an example of a 2D acquired image;

FIG. 3 shows a NEMA/IEC PET torso phantom containing six fillablespheres;

FIG. 4 shows activity ratios between spheres and background;

FIG. 5 shows reconstructed slice images without any filtering and sliceimages after application of different filtering methods in five rows;

FIG. 6 show profiles at a first location for 900 and 4000 seconds forall filtering methods;

FIG. 7 show profiles at a second location for 900 and 4000 seconds forall filtering methods;

FIG. 8 shows mean SNR and coefficient of variation CoV of SNR of fiverealizations for all methods and contrasts;

FIG. 9 shows mean and standard deviation of resolution of fiverealizations;

FIG. 10 shows an example image processing process according to someembodiments of the disclosure; and

FIG. 11 shows an example computer for implementing systems and methodsdescribed herein according to some embodiments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS

FIG. 1 shows an example medical imaging system 100 according to someembodiments of the disclosure. The medical imaging system 100 caninclude an image acquisition system 110, a denoising filter 120, and adisplay device 130. The medical imaging system 100 can generate imagesof internal structures of a human body, for example, for clinicalanalysis and medical intervention purposes.

The image acquisition system 110 can be configured to acquire images oforgans or tissues with one or more imaging technologies. In variousembodiments, the imaging technologies can be X-ray imaging, X-raycomputed Tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),ultrasonography, nuclear medicine imaging (e.g. positron emissiontomography (PET), and single-photon emission computed tomography(SPECT)), and the like. Accordingly, in various embodiments, the imageacquisition system 110 can be an X-ray imaging device, a CT scanner, anMRI scanner, an ultrasound imaging device, a nuclear medicine imagingdevice, and the like.

The acquired images generated from the image acquisition system 110 canbe in a form of a two-dimensional (2D) or three-dimensional (3D) image.A 2D image can include an array of pixels each having a sample valueindicating brightness or an intensity of a detected signal aroundposition of the respective pixel. A 3D image can include pixels (alsotermed voxels) located on a regular grid in 3D space each having asample value indicating brightness or an intensity of a detected signalaround position of a respective voxel.

The acquired images can include noise that mixed with desired signals ateach pixels or voxels. For examples, the acquired images typicallyinclude Gaussian noise. In addition, due to problems of inadequatesignal detection operations associated with imaging devices, imagereconstruction algorithms, low dosage of scanning agent, and the like,other types of noise may be introduced into the acquired images. Thenoise in the acquired images can degrade quality of the acquired images,and cause an adverse influence on diagnosis of a doctor, or accuracy ofsubsequent image processing and analysis operations.

The denoising filter 120 can be configured to reduce noise in theacquired images by employment of one or more noise reduction filters.For example, the noise reduction filters can be a Gaussian filter (GF),a wavelet based filter, a curvelet based filter, a bilateral filter(BF), a nonlinear diffusion filter (NDF), and the like. Particularly, inone embodiment, a gradient vector orientation based nonlinear diffusionfilter (GVOF) is used to denoise the acquired images. The GVOFcalculates diffusion coefficients using both gradient vector magnitudeof a pixel and gradient vector orientation information of pixelssurrounding the pixel.

Filtered images can be generated from the denoising filter 120 as aresult of a filtering operation at the denoising filter 120, and outputto a user for analysis. For example, the filtered image can be displayedto the display device 130, such as a monitor, or printed out.Alternatively, the filtered images may undergo further image processingbefore being displayed. For example, the further image processing caninclude segmentation, registration, visualization, and the like.

FIG. 2 shows an example of a 2D acquired image 210 generated from theimage acquisition system 110 in FIG. 1 example and to be processed bythe denoising filter 120. The acquired image 210 includes an objectrepresented by a region 210 surrounded by a boundary 211. Gradientvectors corresponding to each pixel inside the region 210 are calculatedthat form a gradient vector field. As shown, two specific areas 220 and230 are selected and magnified such that gradient vectors can be seen ontwo magnified areas 221 and 231. Each gradient vector is originated froma position of a respective pixel. Each gradient vector can represent amaximum change rate of pixel values along a specific direction from arespective pixel, and can be determined based on pixel values of pixelsnear the respective pixel. Accordingly, variations of directions andmagnitudes of the gradient vectors can indicate variations of pixelvalues within the region 210, which in turn can indicate structurescaptured by the image 200.

For example, the area 231 includes an edge 232 which is part of theboundary 211. Generally, an edge structure captured in an imagecorresponds to a boundary separating two regions. Within each of the tworegions, pixel values do not vary or variations of pixel values arewithin a small range. In contrast, when crossing the boundary, pixelvalues near the boundary change significantly compared with within thetwo regions. Accordingly, magnitudes of gradient vectors become greaterwhen locations of respective gradient vectors are getting closer to anedge 232, due to that pixel values change more significantly in area 234which is closer to the edge 232 compared with in area 233. Thus, largermagnitudes of gradient vectors can indicate an edge structure that maypresent near the vicinity of the respective gradient vectors.

Based on the above observation, a conventional NDF is developed todenoise an acquired image while preserving edge structures at the sametime. The conventional NDF can be used to process the acquired image200. The conventional NDF exploits information of changing magnitudes ofgradient vectors to get knowledge of presence of structures in a localarea, and for example, accordingly adjust a smoothing strength appliedover this local area. An example of such a conventional NDF is describedin the work of Perona, P. and J. Malik, Scale-space and edge detectionusing anisotropic diffusion, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis andMachine Intelligence, 1990. 12(7): p. 629-639, which is incorporatedherein by reference in its entirety.

Specifically, Perona and Malik introduces a non-linear anisotropicdiffusion process for image processing which can be represented by thefollowing partial-differential-equation (PDE),

$\begin{matrix}{{\frac{\partial{I\left( {x,y,t} \right)}}{\partial t} = {\nabla \cdot \left\lbrack {{c\left( {x,y,t} \right)}{\nabla{I\left( {x,y,t} \right)}}} \right\rbrack}},} & (1)\end{matrix}$ I(t = 0) = I₀.In the PDE (1), I(x,y,t) represents an image, t is a parameterindicating a scale level in a scale space of the image I(x,y,t), I₀represents an initial image with t=0, ∇. and ∇ are divergence andgradient operators, respectively, and c(x,y,t) is referred to as anon-linear diffusion coefficient Corresponding to the parameter tassuming a specific value, solving the PDE (1) results a denoised image.Thus, the equation (1) can be used to represent the conventional NDF.

The PDE (1) can be used to describe an image denoising process as wellas a physical process of diffusion or heat conduction. Thus, based onthe PDE (1), an image denoising process can be interpreted as an analogyof a physical diffusion process, and the diffusion coefficient c(x,y,t)can be used to control the denoising process. For example, the diffusioncoefficient c(x,y,t) can be configured or defined to be a function of agradient vector magnitude of a pixel, and represented as,c(x,y,t)=g(∥∇I(x,y,t)∥),  (2)where ∥∇I(x,y,t)∥ represents a magnitude of the gradient vector∇I(x,y,t) at a position (x, y), and g(.) represents a function, referredto as a diffusion function. If the magnitude of gradient vector∇I(x,y,t) is large (which indicates an edge is present), then, due toeffect of the diffusion function g(.), the diffusion coefficientc(x,y,t) can have a small value. Consequently, the diffusion can becontrolled to be low and an edge near the respective pixel can bepreserved (a small diffusion coefficient means that a smoothingoperation is performed with a low strength). If the magnitude ofgradient vector ∇I(x,y,t) is small (which indicates no structure ispresent), then the diffusion can be controlled to be fast, and a regionnear the respective pixel can be heavily smoothed. In this way, noise inan acquired image can be removed while edge structures can be preservedduring the denoising process based on the diffusion coefficient that isa function of a gradient vector magnitude at a pixel.

An example of the diffusion coefficient function is shown below,

$\begin{matrix}{{c\left( {x,y,t} \right)} = {{\exp\left\lbrack {- \left( \frac{{\nabla{I_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)}}}{k} \right)^{2}} \right\rbrack}.}} & (3)\end{matrix}$In equation (3), I_(σ)(x,y,t) is an image smoothed with a Gaussiankernel of width σ. This smoothing operation can avoid oscillations of∇I_(σ)(x,y,t) caused by signals in a noisy image and the smoothing isapplied only once on the original noisy image in one example. Inequation (3), k is a noise threshold that controls an amount ofdiffusion to be applied in the diffusion process. In alternativeexamples, other forms of diffusion coefficients are employed. Examplesof other forms of diffusion coefficients are described in Blanc-Feraud,L., et al. Nonlinear image processing: modeling and fast algorithm forregularization with edge detection, in Proceedings, InternationalConference on Image Processing. 1995, and Bajla, I., M. Marusiak, and M.Sramek, Anisotropic filtering of MRI data based upon image gradienthistogram, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 1993. 719: p. 90-97, bothof which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

Although the above conventional NDF can be used to eliminate noise andpreserve or enhance edge structures, the above conventional NDF tends tofail when gradient magnitudes are not evaluable(for example, when edgeis not continuous and/or in the presence of high noise, since gradientoperation amplifies noise), and can even enhance speckle noise insteadof removing it.

According to the disclosure, the GVOF can overcome limitations of theconventional NDF for denoising acquired images. The GVOF can not onlyconsider magnitudes of gradient vectors but also orientations ofgradient vectors when determining a denoising strength applied to alocal area. For example, as shown FIG. 2 , the area 221 includes anobject 222 caused by noise. The object 222 is undesired and can thus bereferred to as a false object 222. As can be seen, gradient vectorsaround the false object 222 show a different characteristic comparedwith gradient vectors near the edge 232 in area 234. Specifically,directions of gradient vectors surrounding the false object 222 aretowards the false object 222, and can be seen as being randomlyorientated in different directions. While directions of gradient vectorsin area 234 near the edge 232 are systematic, and oriented similarlytowards the edge 232. Thus, gradient vector orientation information canbe used to distinguish a false structure from an edge structure.

In order to exploit the gradient vector orientation information, theGVOF uses a different form of diffusion function g(.) to represent thediffusion coefficient as shown below,

$\begin{matrix}{{{c\left( {x,y,t} \right)} = {\exp\left\lbrack {- \left( \frac{{{\nabla{I_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)}}} \times {\alpha_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)}}{k} \right)^{2}} \right\rbrack}},} & (4)\end{matrix}$ $\begin{matrix}{{\alpha_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)} = {{❘{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{p}{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{q}{\cos\left( \theta_{({i,j,t})} \right)}}}❘} = {{❘{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{p}{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{q}\frac{{\nabla{I_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)}} \times {\nabla{I_{\sigma}\left( {i,j,t} \right)}}}{{{\nabla{I_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)}}} \times {{\nabla{I_{\sigma}\left( {i,j,t} \right)}}}}}}❘}.}}} & (5)\end{matrix}$c(x,y,t) represents the diffusion coefficient at a pixel located atposition (x, y), I_(σ)(x,y,t) represents a smoothed image that is aninitial image (acquired image) smoothed with a Gaussian kernel having awidth of σ, k is a noise threshold that controls an amount of diffusion(smoothing strength) to be applied in the diffusion process, and∇I_(σ)(x,y,t) represents a gradient vector at position (x, y).

A new term α_(σ)(x,y,t), as defined by equation (5), is introduced intothe diffusion coefficient which carries gradient vector orientationinformation. Specifically, a window surrounding the current position (x,y, t) in the smoothed current image I_(σ)(x,y,t) is defined which canhave a size of p×q pixels. Accordingly, ∇I_(σ)(i,j,t) can represent agradient vector at position (i, j) within the window of p×q pixels. Anangle between the gradient vector ∇I_(σ)(i,j,t) and the gradient vector∇I_(σ)(x,y,t) can be represented as θ_((i,j,t)). Thus, as shown inequation (5), the term α_(σ)(x,y,t) equals to an absolute value of a sumof cosines cos(θ_((i,j,t))) of angles θ_((i,j,t)) (that correspond toeach gradient vector ∇I_(σ)(i,j,t) with respect to the gradient vector∇I_(σ)(x,y,t)). Accordingly, the term α_(σ)(x,y,t) can vary in a rangeof 0 to 1. Equation (6) is used to restrict the minimum and maximumvalues of α_(σ)(x,y,t) between to 0 and 1,

$\begin{matrix}{{\alpha_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)} = \frac{{\alpha_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)} - {\min\left( {\alpha_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)} \right)}}{{\max\left( {\alpha_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)} \right)} - {\min\left( {\alpha_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)} \right)}}} & (6)\end{matrix}$

For example, corresponding to a scenario of the false structure 222 inFIG. 2 , the sum of cosine of the angles θ_((x,y,t)) at pixel (x,y,t)within a window surrounding the false structure 222 can be random. Thus,an absolute value of the sum of cos(θ_((i,j,t))) can be a value close to0, and the α_(σ)(x,y,t) can be a value close to 0. Assumingα_(σ)(x,y,t)=0 that is indicative of randomness in gradient vectororientations, when considered together with the gradient vectormagnitude information (represented by ∇I_(σ)(x,y,t)), the diffusioncoefficient, c (x,y,t) can have a value of 1, which indicates a heavysmooth operation around the false structure 222. In contrast,corresponding to a scenario of the edge 232 in FIG. 2 , the sum ofcosine of the angles θ_((,x,y,t)) at pixel (,x,y,t) within a window nearthe edge 232 can have similar vales. Thus, an absolute value of a sum ofcos(θ_((x,y,t))) can be close to 1. Combined with gradient vectormagnitude information represented by ∇I_(σ)(x,y,t), a diffusioncoefficient c(x,y,t) having a smaller value may result, which may stopdiffusion near the edge 232, or in other words, cause a smooth operationnear the edge structure 232 with a smaller strength.

In one example, different from the equation (4), a GVOF can take a formas follows,

$\begin{matrix}{{{c\left( {x,y,t} \right)} = {\exp\left\lbrack {- \left( \frac{\alpha_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)}{k} \right)^{2}} \right\rbrack}},} & (7)\end{matrix}$where the term ∥∇I_(σ)(x,y,t)∥ representing gradient vector magnitudeinformation is removed.

In one example, a 3D image is acquired that includes a set of 2D sliceimages that are stacked together to form the 3D image. Each 2D sliceimage can be processed with a GVOF. Subsequently, filtered slice imagesresulting from the GVOF filtering processing can be combined to form afiltered 3D image.

An experiment is described below. In the experiment, PET images withvarying noise levels and contrasts are acquired using a standard NEMAtorso phantom, and the GVOF is compared with GF, BF, and NDF to removenoise in the acquired PET images. Medical images can be acquired withdifferent imaging modalities, such as X-ray, MRI, Ultra sound, PET, andthe like. Noise characteristics of different imaging modalities can bedifferent. Among different imaging modalities, PET which depends onphoton counting events is known to have the worst SNR and poorest imageresolution. As shown by the experiment, conventional GF, BF, and NDF arequalitatively and quantitatively suboptimal for PET images. For example,with those conventional filtering methods, edges cannot directly bedetermined, and filtered image quality can also depend on variations ofcontrast and noise. The GVOF shows a higher performance than theconventional methods for preserving edge structures in presence of highnoise and poor resolution. The GVOF is robust against variations incontrast and noise, which makes the GVOF suitable for measurement ofresponse to a therapy process. The GVOF can also be applicable for othertypes of images which are corrupted by a high level of noise, such asastronomical images.

Materials And Methods of the Experiment

FIG. 3 shows a NEMA/IEC PET torso phantom 301 containing six fillablespheres, and dimensions of each sphere. A dimension of a cylindricalcold central insert 302 (51 mm in diameter) is also shown. As shown, thesix spheres have diameters of 10, 13, 17, 22, 28 and 37 mm correspondingto volumes of 0.52, 1.15, 2.57, 5.58, 11.49 and 26.52 ml. The sixspheres are filled with F-18 solutions to yield two different contrastsbetween hot spheres and colder uniform background (2:1 and 4:1).Activity ratios between spheres and background are shown in FIG. 4 .

Phantom data are acquired in a 3D mode on the TrueV PET-CT scanner(Siemens, USA) for 120 minutes which provides 109 image planes or slicescovering a 21.6 cm axial FOV (field of view). Images are reconstructedinto a 256×256×109 matrix with voxel dimensions of 2.67×2.67×2.00 mmusing OSEM reconstruction algorithm with 4 iterations and 21 subsets forfive different scan durations (900, 1200, 2000 and 4000 seconds [15, 20,33.3 and 66.6 minutes]) to represent different levels of noise. Astarting time of each static frame are shifted to reconstruct fivedifferent non-overlapping and overlapping realizations for alldurations. All reconstructed images are smoothed with the GVOF afterapplying decay correction and performance of the new filter is thencompared with decay corrected images smoothed with a 4-mm FWHM (fullwidth at half maximum) GF, BF and NDF.

SNR of an image is measured by placing a fixed size ROI of 26.52 ml inthe background away from the hot spheres to minimize the spill in andpartial volume effects and defined according to,

$\begin{matrix}{{SNR} = {20{\log_{10}\left( \frac{\mu_{ROI}}{\sigma_{ROI}} \right)}}} & (8)\end{matrix}$where μ_(ROI) and σ_(ROI) are the mean and standard deviation within theROI.

Contrast noise ratio (CNR) is used to evaluate the contrast as afunction of noise defined as the ratio of the difference of signalintensities of two regions of interest to the background noise,

$\begin{matrix}{{CNR} = \frac{\mu_{SP} - \mu_{BG}}{\sigma_{BG}}} & (9)\end{matrix}$where μ_(SP) and μ_(BG) are the mean activity within the sphere andbackground. For estimating μ_(SP), the ROI was first estimated for eachsphere using the calculated boundaries based on the known diameter andposition of each sphere and eroded by 3×3 structural element to removethe partial volume effect. μ_(BG) is estimated by placing a fixed sizeROI of 26.52 ml in the background away from the hot sphere as similarfor SNR measurement. Since CNR indicates how visible or detectable thehot sphere is in contrast to the background within which the hot sphereis located, it is also known as detectability.

Resolution as full width at half maximum (FWHM) was derived from thestandard deviation of a 1D Gaussian function which was fitted to theabsolute gradient of the edge profile of each image.

For assessing the accuracy of measurement of activity concentrationafter smoothing with different filters, percentage bias is calculatedusing the mean of maximum activity of five realizations (AC_(max)^(mean)) within each sphere and true measured activity concentration(TAC) that was used to fill each sphere and is given by,

$\begin{matrix}{{\%{Bias}} = {100 \times \left( \frac{{AC_{max}^{mean}} - {TAC}}{TAC} \right)}} & (10)\end{matrix}$where AC_(max) represents SUV_(max) without correction for weight andinjected dose. The reproducibility of was measured as the percentdifference between the two measurements and is calculated by consideringthe highest and lowest activity amongst five realizations within eachsphere (AC_(max-highest) and AC_(max-lowest) respectively). The %difference equation in this case is given by,

$\begin{matrix}{{\%{difference}} = {100 \times \frac{{AC_{{max} - {highest}}} - {AC_{{max} - {lowest}}}}{\left( {\frac{1}{2}\left( {{AC_{{max} - {highest}}} + {AC_{{max} - {lowest}}}} \right)} \right)}}} & (11)\end{matrix}$

Experiment Results

FIG. 5 shows reconstructed slice images without any filtering and sliceimages after application of different filtering methods in rows 501-505.Each row of images corresponding to four different acquisition(scanning) durations, 900 seconds, 1200 seconds, 200 seconds, and 4000seconds. As shown, it is clearly evident that GF method improves theimage quality by removing noise. Nonetheless the images appear blurred.BF provides images with higher resolution compared to GF for 2000 and4000 seconds acquisition duration. However, for 900 and 1200 secondsacquisition durations, quality of the images filtered by BF method isinferior compared to GF method. NDF and GVOF provide visually betterquality images compared to all other methods. The quality of images issimilar for 2000 and 4000 seconds for these two methods. For 900 and1200 seconds acquisition durations GVOF appears superior to NDF.

FIG. 6 and FIG. 7 show profiles through line A 511 and line B 512 (shownin the bottom left image in FIG. 5 ) for 900 and 4000 seconds for allfiltering methods. In FIG. 6 and FIG. 7 , curves corresponding todifferent filtering methods are labeled with numerals C1-C5 in thefollowing way: C1 indicates without filtering, C2 indicate a GFfiltering, C3 indicates a BF filtering; C4 indicates a DF filtering, andC5 indicates a GVOF filtering.

Specifically, profiles at line A 511 passes through 22 mm and 37 mmspheres, whereas profiles at line B 512 only passes through the uniformbackground. It can be interpreted from these two sets of profiles thatboth GF and BF methods reduce noise but are not able to eliminate noisecompletely, and their performance are very much dependent on theacquisition durations. The performance of NDF method is also very muchdependent on the noise level. The GVOF is able to remove noise for bothacquisition durations, and its performance is much less dependent on thenoise level. The profiles also look remarkably flat for both durationsfor the GVOF.

FIG. 8 shows mean SNR and coefficient of variation CoV of SNR of fiverealizations (defined as the ratio of standard deviation over mean) forall methods and contrasts. Mean SNR increases and CoV decreases with theincrease in acquisition durations. With the application of filtering,mean SNR increases for all methods. For GF, SNR is improved by 100%compared to no filter for 900 and 1200 seconds. However, for 2000 and4000 seconds the improvement is less than 70%. GF also improves the CoV.At 2:1 contrast, no significant improvement by applying BF instead of GFis observed. However, at a higher contrast level of 4:1, 18% to 40%improvement is observed depending on the acquisition durations. Even ata higher contrast level, BF does not show any significant improvement inSNR over GF for 900 seconds acquisition duration. CoV is approximatelytwo times higher for BF compared to GF for all noise and contrastlevels. Both NDF and GVOF increase the SNR for all cases. The increasein mean SNR for NDF and GVOF is approximately 300% and 200% better thanthat of no filter and GF methods respectively.

For 900 and 2000 seconds durations, GVOF performs 10% better than NDF.However, CoV of SNR GVOF is 100% lower compared to NDF for 900 and 2000seconds acquisition durations. As the contrast and acquisition durationincreases, difference of CoV between NDF and GVOF is reduced. Overall,the GVOF provides the highest mean SNR and the lowest CoV of SNRirrespective of acquisition duration.

As the results of the experiment, regarding CNR for all methods for eachsphere and two contrasts are acquired. CNR for contrast 4:1 for allimages is higher compared to contrast 2:1 and it increases with theincrease of scanning durations. The average increase in CNR isapproximately 275% as the contrast increases from 2:1 to 4:1. Atcontrast 2:1, for 900 seconds acquisition duration, CNR for 13 mm sphereis 1.21, 2.80, 1.58, 11.36 and 9.24 for no filter, GF, BF, NDF and GVOFrespectively. At contrast 4:1, for 900 seconds acquisition duration, CNRfor 13 mm sphere is 2.02, 5.51, 12.08, 97.88 and 94.32. CNR for 37 mmsphere for contrast 2:1 is 2.36, 6.49, 4.36, 41.03 and 55.48 for 900 andfor contrast 4:1 is 6.15, 17.61, 26.13, 170.35 and 206.31 for 900acquisition durations.

CNR increases with the changes in size of spheres because contrasts forsmaller spheres filled with the same activity are lower due to partialvolume effect. GF improves CNR by 100% and 180% for 13 mm sphere and 37mm sphere respectively compared to no filter. BF does not improve CNRcompared to GF for 2:1 contrast. However, for contrast 4:1, BF improvesCNR by an average of 85%. For 2:1 contrast, CNR is similar for both NDFand GVOF for 2000 and 4000 seconds acquisition durations and theimprovement of CNR is 520% compared to GF method. For 900 and 1200seconds CNR for GVOF is 35% and 28% better than NDF. For contrast 4:1,GVOF performs better than NDF with the GVOF being 1260% and NDF methodbeing 1080% superior compared to GF. Overall, images smoothed by theGVOF provide the highest CNR irrespective of acquisition durations andcontrast.

FIG. 9 shows mean and standard deviation of resolution of fiverealizations. Average resolution achieved by OSEM reconstructionalgorithm without any post reconstruction filtering is 6.40 mm. GFdegrades the mean resolution by 1.8 mm to 8.20 mm. However, standarddeviation of resolution between different measurements is improved withGF. The mean resolutions over all acquisition durations provided by BFand NDF method are 6.45 mm and 6.75 mm respectively which is similar tono filter case. However, NDF provides lower standard deviation comparedto both no filter and BF methods but higher than that of GF method. Theaverage resolution achieved by GVOF is 5.8 mm and is similar across allnoise levels. The standard deviation is also lowest compared to allother methods.

As the results of the experiment, maximum activity (analogous toSUV_(max)) of all five realizations for contrast 2:1 and 4:1 for allspheres and filtering methods are calculated. Mean and standarddeviation (as a measure of variance) for five realizations along withthe measured activity that was used to fill the spheres are alsoacquired. Percentage biases in comparison to the actual activity arealso calculated. Maximum activity estimated from images with differentfilters is very much dependent on the size of sphere. No filter and BFmethod always overestimate the maximum activity with a very highstandard deviation for both contrasts except for 10 mm sphere. Hence,percentage biases for both the methods are positive and higher than allthree other methods. With the increase of acquisition duration, bothvariance and bias reduce for these two methods. However, percentagebiases provided by these two methods is higher for 22 mm, 28 mm and 37mm spheres compared to 13 mm and 17 mm spheres for same acquisitionduration for both contrasts. Since 10 mm sphere is too small forevaluation, variance and bias analysis of this sphere was omitted fromfurther analysis.

Because of presence of noise, maximum activity is usually overestimated.Since smaller volumes are subject to higher partial volume effects andspill over, noise is compensated by PVE and spill over and bias ishigher for bigger volumes. More systematic for 22, 28 and 37 mm spheresothers are not due to complex combined effects of partial volume, spillover and noise. Smaller volume are subject to more noise due to loweruptake due to PVE and spill over.

With the application of GF, the estimated maximum activity is lowercompared to no filter. Standard deviation also reduces for all caseswith SD at contrast level 2:1 being higher than that of contrast level4:1. GF provides lowest bias for 13 mm and 17 mm spheres for bothcontrasts with the bias for contrast 4:1 being marginally better forthese two spheres. With the increase of sphere sizes bias provided by GFalso increases and is dependent on acquisition duration. For sphere sizebigger than 17 mm at contrast level 2:1, the maximum bias is 33.82 for37 mm sphere and 900 seconds acquisition duration and the minimum is11.16 for 22 mm sphere and 4000 seconds acquisition duration. Forcontrast 4:1 the values are 27.72 and 6.38 respectively. On an averagebias provided by GF is approximately 30% higher for contrast 2:1compared to contrast 4:1 for 22 mm, 28 mm and 37 mm spheres.

For contrast level 2:1 and for 13 mm and 17 mm spheres, bias provided byNDF and GVOF are negative implying that maximum activity estimated bythis two methods are lower than the measured activity. For contrast 4:1,the similar trend in bias is only observed for 13 mm sphere. Bias forNDF is lower than GF but with higher standard deviation for 22 mm, 28 mmand 37 mm spheres. Both bias and SD for NDF is vary according to theacquisition durations with 900 seconds duration having the highest biasand 4000 seconds duration has the lowest) for both contrast. However,bias at contrast 4:1 are lower for NDF compared to that of contrast2:1-21.53% and 18.69% for contrast 2:1 and 4:1 respectively for 900seconds and 6.88% and −0.75% for 4000 seconds.

Biases for GVOF vary from 0.00% (37 mm and 4000 seconds for contrast4:1) to 6.21% (22 mm and 900 seconds for contrast 2:1) for 22 mm, 28 mmand 37 mm diameter sphere. SD of estimated maximum activity provided byGVOF is the lowest compared to other methods for these three spheres.

As the results of the experiment, reproducibility between highest andlowest maximum activity for each sphere for each method is acquired.With the application of filtering, reproducibility increases for allmethod except BF. Reproducibility for all methods is dependent on thecontrast, acquisition durations and size. Since maximum activityestimated in 10 mm sphere is not evaluable, it is discarded from furtherreproducibility analysis. For 13 mm and 17 mm spheres, percentagedifference for no filter images vary from 15% to 44.55% for contrast 2:1and 8.65% to 42.39% for contrast 4:1 based on acquisition duration. GFimproved reproducibility by reducing percentage difference. Percentagedifference for GF varies from 6.67% to 23% for contrast 2:1 and 3.49% to17.51% for contrast 4:1. Reproducibility of BF is worse than even nofilter and vary from 18.67% to 54.22% for contrast 2:1 and 10.48% to47.54% for contrast 4:1. NDF and GVOF improve reproducibility comparedto no filter but degrades compared to GF for contrast 2:1 with6.14%-30.60% for NDF and 2.65%-44.45% for GVOF. However, for contrast4:1, reproducibility is comparable to GF for both NDF and GVOF(2.85%-18.28% and 2.27%-19.71% respectively).

Reproducibility for no filter case for 22 mm, 28 mm and 37 mm spheresvary from 6.70% to 42.10% for contrast 2:1 and 5.84% to 22.68% forcontrast 4:1. Higher percentage difference is due to lower acquisitiondurations. Similar to smaller sphere sizes, GF improves reproducibilityby reducing percentage difference between two estimations by half ofthat of no filter for both contrast (2.62%-20.45% and 2.63%-11.73%respectively). Reproducibility for BF is approximately two times higherthan that of GF for both contrasts for the largest three spheres. Thereproducibility of AD for these spheres vary from 0.84% to 32.22% forcontrast 2:1 and 1.33% to 15.72% for contrast 4:1. The GVOF providesreproducibility that varies from 1.1% to 20.65% and 1.3% to 10.80% forcontrast 2:1 and contrast 4:1 respectively and comparable to GF.Overall, GF and GVOF provide the best reproducibility for sphere biggerthan 17 mm diameter.

The current disclosure describes methods and systems to remove noisefrom medical images. The methods and systems utilize combinedinformation provided by both gradient magnitude and gradient vectordirection, and overcome limitations of several other methods. The GVOFperforms robustly across changes in image contrast and noise and doesnot require adjusting parameters (e.g., iteration number, values etc.)for differential uptakes. Along with the higher SNR, CNR and resolution,the GVOF provides the best quantitative accurate results (percentagebias, variance and reproducibility) for lesions with size greater thanthree times of the PET intrinsic resolution. This makes the GVOF anstrong alternative to Gaussian filter that are currently used instate-of-the-art clinical PET systems to provide smoothed images for thepurpose of both diagnosis and response assessment.

FIG. 10 shows an example image processing process 1000 according to someembodiments of the disclosure. The process 1000 can start from S1001 andproceed to S1010.

At S1010, an acquired image can be received. For example, the acquiredimage can be a medical image, such as an X-ray image, a computedtomography (CT) image, an magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) image, anultrasound image, a nuclear medicine image, a positron emissiontomography (PET) image, a single-photon emission computed tomography(SPECT)) image, and the like. The acquired image can be a 2D or 3Dmedical image. In alternative examples, the acquired image can be othertypes of images, such as an astronomical image.

At S1020, the acquired image is processed with a denoising filter, suchas the GVOF to generate a filtered image. The filtering process canremove or reduce noise in the acquired image and preserve edgestructures in the acquired image. Particularly, the GVOF has a diffusioncoefficient that can be calculated using both gradient vector magnitudeinformation and gradient vector orientation information. Due torandomness of gradient vector orientations near a false structure, thediffusion coefficient may have a large value close to 1, and accordinglya heavy smoothing may be performed near the false structure to remove tofalse structure. In contrast, orientations of gradient vectors near anedge structure can be uniform. Combined with gradient magnitudeinformation, a diffusion coefficient with a small value may result,stopping diffusion near the edge structure. Thus, application of theGVOF can remove false structures while preserving edge structures inacquired images.

At S1030, the filtered image is displayed to a user. For example, thefiltered image can be displayed on a computer monitor, or printed outfor a doctor. In alternative examples, the filtered image may undergoother processing steps before being displayed on a display device. Theprocess 1000 proceeds to 51099 and terminates at 51099.

FIG. 11 shows an example computer 1100 for implementing systems andmethods described herein according to some embodiments. The computer1100 can include a memory 1102 and a CPU 1100. For example, the computer1100 can be used to implement the image processing process 1000 in FIG.10 example. The computer 1100 can also be used for implementingcomponents in the image acquisition system 100, such as the denoisingfilter 120, the display device 130, and the like. For example, programinstructions for performing functions of the denoising filter 120 orsteps of the image denoising process 1000 can be stored in the memory1102. The CPU 1100 can execute the program instructions to perform thefunctions of the denoising filter 120 or the steps of the imagedenoising process 100. Thus, claimed advancements in this disclosure canbe realized.

The program instructions for performing functions of the denoisingfilter 120 or steps of the image denoising process 1000 can be stored ina disk 1104, such as a hard drive (HDD) or portable storage medium ormay be stored remotely. Further, the claimed advancements are notlimited by the form of the computer-readable media on which theinstructions of the inventive process are stored. For example, theinstructions may be stored on CDs, DVDs, in FLASH memory, RAM, ROM,PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, hard disk or any other information processingdevice with which the computer 1100 communicates, such as a server orcomputer.

Further, the claimed advancements may be provided as a utilityapplication, background daemon, or component of an operating system, orcombination thereof, executing in conjunction with CPU 1100 and anoperating system such as Microsoft Windows 7, UNIX, Solaris, LINUX,Apple MAC-OS and other systems known to those skilled in the art.

For example, CPU 1100 may be a Xenon or Core processor from Intel ofAmerica or an Opteron processor from AMD of America, or may be otherprocessor types that would be recognized by one of ordinary skill in theart. Alternatively, the CPU 1100 may be implemented on an FPGA, ASIC,PLD or using discrete logic circuits, as one of ordinary skill in theart would recognize. Further, CPU 1100 may be implemented as multipleprocessors cooperatively working in parallel to perform the instructionsof the inventive processes described above.

The computer 1100 can also include a network controller 1106, such as anIntel Ethernet PRO network interface card from Intel Corporation ofAmerica, for interfacing with network 1111. As can be appreciated, thenetwork 1111 can be a public network, such as the Internet, or a privatenetwork such as an LAN or WAN network, or any combination thereof andcan also include PSTN or ISDN sub-networks. The network 1111 can also bewired, such as an Ethernet network, or can be wireless such as acellular network including EDGE, 3G and 4G wireless cellular systems.The wireless network can also be WiFi, Bluetooth, or any other wirelessform of communication that is known.

The computer 1100 further includes a display controller 1108, such as aNVIDIA GeForce GTX or Quadro graphics adaptor from NVIDIA Corporation ofAmerica for interfacing with display 1110, such as a Hewlett PackardHPL2445w LCD monitor. A general purpose I/O interface 1112 interfaceswith a keyboard and/or mouse 1114 as well as a touch screen panel 1116on or separate from display 1110. General purpose I/O interface alsoconnects to a variety of peripherals 1118 including printers andscanners, such as an OfficeJet or DeskJet from Hewlett Packard.

A sound controller 1120 is also provided in the computer, such as SoundBlaster X-Fi Titanium from Creative, to interface withspeakers/microphone 1122 thereby providing sounds and/or music.

The general purpose storage controller 1124 connects the storage mediumdisk 1104 with communication bus 1126, which may be an ISA, EISA, VESA,PCI, or similar, for interconnecting all of the components of thecomputer 1100. A description of the general features and functionalityof the display 1110, keyboard and/or mouse 1114, as well as the displaycontroller 1108, storage controller 1124, network controller 1106, soundcontroller 1120, and general purpose I/O interface 1112 is omittedherein for brevity as these features are known.

The processes and functions described herein can be implemented as acomputer program which, when executed by one or more processors, cancause the one or more processors to perform the respective processes andfunctions. The computer program may be stored or distributed on asuitable medium, such as an optical storage medium or a solid-statemedium supplied together with, or as part of, other hardware. Thecomputer program may also be distributed in other forms, such as via theInternet or other wired or wireless telecommunication systems. Forexample, the computer program can be obtained and loaded into anapparatus, including obtaining the computer program through physicalmedium or distributed system, including, for example, from a serverconnected to the Internet.

The computer program may be accessible from a computer-readable mediumproviding program instructions for use by or in connection with acomputer or any instruction execution system. A computer readable mediummay include any apparatus that stores, communicates, propagates, ortransports the computer program for use by or in connection with aninstruction execution system, apparatus, or device. Thecomputer-readable medium can be magnetic, optical, electronic,electromagnetic, infrared, or semiconductor system (or apparatus ordevice) or a propagation medium. The computer-readable medium mayinclude a computer-readable non-transitory storage medium such as asemiconductor or solid state memory, magnetic tape, a removable computerdiskette, a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), amagnetic disk and an optical disk, and the like. The computer-readablenon-transitory storage medium can include all types of computer readablemedium, including magnetic storage medium, optical storage medium, flashmedium, and solid state storage medium.

While aspects of the present disclosure have been described inconjunction with the specific embodiments thereof that are proposed asexamples, alternatives, modifications, and variations to the examplesmay be made. Accordingly, embodiments as set forth herein are intendedto be illustrative and not limiting. There are changes that may be madewithout departing from the scope of the claims set forth below.

What is claimed is:
 1. A computer aided image denoising method forclinical analysis using positron emission tomography (PET), comprising:acquiring a PET clinical medical image by imaging a torso of a humanbody with a PET image acquisition system, receiving the PET clinicalmedical image on a computing device having a memory and a processor fromthe PET image acquisition system; and processing, with the processor ofthe computing device, the PET clinical medical image with a nonlineardiffusion coefficient based filter having a diffusion coefficient thatis calculated using gradient vector orientation information in the PETclinical medical image to provide a denoised image, displaying thedenoised image on a display device, wherein the nonlinear diffusioncoefficient based filter is defined by followingpartial-differential-equation,${\frac{\partial{I\left( {x,y,t} \right)}}{\partial t} = {\nabla \cdot \left\lbrack {{c\left( {x,y,t} \right)}{\nabla{I\left( {x,y,t} \right)}}} \right\rbrack}},$I(t = 0) = I₀, where I(x,y,t) represents an image, (x,y) represents aposition of pixel in the image, t is a parameter indicating a scalelevel in a scale space of the image I(x,y,t), I₀ represents an initialimage with t=0, ∇. and ∇ are divergence and gradient operators,respectively, and c (x, y, t) is the diffusion coefficient at a pixellocated at position (x, y), and wherein the diffusion coefficient isdefined as,${{c\left( {x,y,t} \right)} = {\exp\left\lbrack {- \left( \frac{{{\nabla{I_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)}}} \times {\alpha_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)}}{k} \right)^{2}} \right\rbrack}},$where I_(σ)(x,y,t) represents a smoothed image that is the initial imageI₀ smoothed with a Gaussian kernel having a width of σ, k is a noisethreshold, α_(σ)(x, y, t) is a term carrying gradient vector orientationinformation.
 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising: processingthe PET clinical medical image with the nonlinear diffusion coefficientbased filter having the diffusion coefficient that is calculated usingboth gradient vector magnitude information and gradient vectororientation information in the PET clinical medical image.
 3. The methodof claim 1, wherein the term carrying gradient vector orientationinformation is defined as,${{\alpha_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)} = {{❘{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{p}{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{q}{\cos\left( \theta_{({i,j,t})} \right)}}}❘} = {❘{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{p}{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{q}\frac{{\nabla{I_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)}} \times {\nabla{I_{\sigma}\left( {i,j,t} \right)}}}{{{\nabla{I_{\sigma}\left( {x,y,t} \right)}}} \times {{\nabla{I_{\sigma}\left( {i,j,t} \right)}}}}}}❘}}},$wherein p×q represents a size of a window in terms of pixels thatsurrounds a position (x, y) in the smoothed image I_(σ)(x,y,t),θ_((i,j)) is an angle between a gradient vector ∇I_(σ)(i,j,t) and agradient vector ∇I_(σ)(x,y,t).
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the PETclinical medical image is a two-dimensional (2D) or three-dimensional(3D) medical image.